Easements Land Law Essay

In the past, English law has been underpinned by a strong and generally unifying desire to protect the rights of persons who could demonstrate a long established de facto enjoyment of land. Indeed, the Prescription Act 1832 legislatively entrenched prescription, and in particular, prescriptive easements. The underlying assumption was that the principle of prescription was necessary to reconcile the conflicting interests of landowners The basis of prescription is that if long enjoyment of a lawful right is shown, the courts will uphold the right by presuming it had a lawful origin. There are three types of prescription, namely, prescription at common law, prescription under the doctrine of lost modern grant and prescription under the Prescription act 1832. The following document will discuss the current short comings of the law of acquisition of easements by prescription and provide detailed study of recommended reforms. The first area to discuss is the acquisition of easements by prescription at common law. To acquire an easement under common law, the claimant has to show that the easement has been enjoyed not just for a long period of time but since time immemorial, that is, since 1189. One of the first identified issues with acquisition under common law was the idea of time immemorial, the issue arose in Bryant v Foot , where a rector tried to establish a claim to a fee for marriages performed in his parish church. Early use was proved but it was held that the fee of 13 shillings could not have been so high in 1189 and therefore the right could not have existed since time immemorial. The presumption of time immemorial can be rebutted by the owner of the allegedly servient land demonstrating that this was not infact the case. This was demonstrated in the case of Duke of Norfolk v Arbuthnot where a claim to prescription failed upon proof that the church in question had been built around 1380 and therefore, even though the right had existed for centuries, it had not existed since 1189. The courts later decided to use the idea of living memory, which later became 20 years. However it has been generally assumed that the ancient common law principle nowadays adds nothing to the other grounds of prescriptive claims as it is virtually impossible to make a successful claim to a prescriptive right at common law. The common law principle of prescriptive acquisition has no place in the modern times. The doctrine of lost modern grant was â€Å"developed because of unsatisfactory nature of common law prescription†. As it was difficult to that a right has been exercised since 1189, the law allowed a much easier test to be applied. Claims are based on a legal fiction which suggests that a grant had been made at one time but the grant had been lost. In Tehidy Minerals Ltd v Norman , it was said that the legal fiction would be adopted â€Å"where there has been upwards of 20 years† uninterrupted enjoyment of an easement, such enjoyment having the necessary qualities to fulfil the requirements of prescription. Evidence to raise the presumption must be stronger than that required for prescription at common law, and the fiction can only be relied upon if the claim fails at common law. The current problems with the law of lost modern grant are that the presumption of a grant having existed is strong as such that it cannot be rebutted by proof positive that no grant was made. It was hard to persuade Juries to make the presumption under lost modern grant that a grant had existed, even though there was sufficient evidence to prove that it could not have. The act was passed to remedy the situation, As Thesiger J explained in Sturges v Bridgman, â€Å"The act fixes periods for the acquisition of easments, but it does not alter the character of easements or of the user or enjoyment by which they are acquired†. The main intention behind its drafting was to shorten the time of prescription in certain cases. It has been castigated as â€Å"one of the worst drafted acts on the Statute book†. The act is intended to supplement, rather than displace, the other grounds of prescription. It also has been criticised for being overly complex. Various shortcomings of the act have been outlined in cases and by critics. One of the outlined flaws is that the period of 20 years to find a prescriptive right under the act has to be the 20 years next before action b rought. Therefore the period must be calculated back from â€Å"some suit or action wherein the claim or matter to which such right may relate shall have been or shall be brought into question† . This means that even though the right may have been enjoyed for the past 80 years, the claim will fail unless the last 20 years immediately before the action have been â€Å"without interruption†. The claim will also fail if both tenements had been owned or occupied by the same person anytime immediately before the action. The minimum period of 20 years has to be â€Å"next before action† and without interruption. If the interruption originated 19 years and one day prior to the action, the year’s interruption would not be completed until one day after 20 years. If the dominant owner did not make his claim before the last day of the year he would be too late. As on the next day the fatal period on one year’s interruption would be complete, thus he only has one day only in which to make his claim. The use of vague vocabulary such as the term â€Å"interruption† has amounted to masses of criticisms. Interruption has a special meaning for the purposes of prescription act, it says that even when there is some hostile obstruction, it will not amount to an interruption unless and until the claimant has acquiesced in the obstruction for one year after becoming aware of it and knowing who was responsible for it. Reforms One of the suggested reforms by the Law commission was to â€Å"abolish prescriptive acquisition with prospective effect†. The arguments presented in favour of abolishing prescriptive acquisition do hold some influence. It has been long contended that there is no longer nay moral justification for the prescription of easements. Is it fair to take unfair advantage of a â€Å"good neighbourly† attitude? Prescriptive acquisition allows the dominant owner to get something in exchange for nothing, the owner of the servient land is in no way compensated. For some Law reform parties abolishment of Law of Prescription may be the easiest and safest method of restoring certainty to the law, however to point to the complexity of the law does not address the fundamental issue as to whether prescription in some form is still necessary in land law. Abolishing prescription will not resolve all problems posed by prescriptive easements. There are other possibilities of reform rather than complete abolishment, one of them being abolition being subject to transitional provisions through the land registration system, a transitional provisions period could be set which would allow people who had acquired a prescriptive easement to register it. There is a clear advantage to this, Landowners are placed on notice that they are required to take steps to secure their rights or loose them altogether. In this way, after a specified time limit there is the chance of completely abolishing the acquisition of easements by prescription. It is also likely that the abolition of prescriptive easements would create a legal vacuum in respect to prospective acquisition by prescription. As pointed out earlier, the law of prescription was important for long established de facto users when there was no other way of acquiring an easement, particularly when the servient owner was unwilling to negotiate a bargain for easement rights. Yet the alleged easement served and continued to serve a practical or economic purpose for the dominant owner. Indeed, it was unlikely that a dominant owner would claim an easement by prescription for theoretical or historical reasons only. The claim based on retrospective long user was inextricably intertwined with present value. As English Land Law is going through its transition from the period of possession to registration it is unlikely that the law of prescription will be kept in its current form. In 1998, the Law Commission and H M L Registry considered that far reaching action was necessary. The question will be whether to modify prescription or abolish it altogether, it will depend upon whether long established de facto enjoyment can be accommodated within a system where the frame of reference is registration and the major goal is the protection of bona fide purchasers. Attempts have been made to encounter these issues in the Land Registration Act 2002 and The Commons Act 2006.

Contextual Knowledge in Program Planning: A Personal Reflection

Program planning is a challenging and complex task. Its complexity lies not only in the program details or the audience to which the program is targeted to, but in the different personalities or experiences of the planners. Many times as planners, we communicate what we are. We want to inculcate our belief and personal perception to audience including our biases. Planning itself requires much effort. With interpersonal issues among planners, the issue becomes more difficult to deal with as experts rub against each other. Answer to Question 1Planning involves the participation of different stakeholders or team members. Different ideas flow and clash against each other. Power issues surface and the battle over whose idea or whose proposal is better rages. When faced with this circumstance, I tend to speak out my mind. I listen to others’ thought as well. I go over the positive and negative aspects of each idea. I weigh the options and vote for the best one. I respect each person or team member. I realized that when it comes to power relations, there are different motivations lying beneath.At first, I believed planners are sincere and focused in doing service. Yet, when I had my first brush with power struggles within my circle, it dawned on me that some planners have their personal agenda. It could be something beneficial to them. So far, there is nothing I would like to change about my current beliefs. But I want to reinforce the notion that planners must be objective and must be wiling to let go of personal biases or motivation for the good of many. Answer to Question 2Listening and open communication are the skills that I utilize in every planning session. Listening requires much effort as it involves more than hearing different ideas. Listening is digesting each idea and respecting it. Listening is acknowledging one planner’s thoughts and knowledge. Communication, on the other hand, is being open with the possibilities of accepting and trying ou t the ideas. It may also mean acceptance for every suggestion turned down. Open communication is healthy and acts as a bridge.If there is something that I would really want to practice in my belief system is the win-win solution. Negotiation is coming up with the best solution with minor compromises that serve both rallying parties. Answer to Question 3 Planning a program for adults is an enjoyable task. Ethically speaking, adults are willing learners who are experts in their own right. They can make decisions with or without outside intervention. Each adult is a well of knowledge; having gone through different life experiences.These learning are brought out through a participatory learning process. Usually, my beliefs are challenged when a co-planner becomes so very intellectual in approach and dismisses my suggestion that adult learners are learned, by virtue of experience. I usually respond by reasoning that through the adult learner’s participation, the program can be muc h more engaging with the learner themselves speaking out and contributing to the discussion. The conventional funnel method or top-down approach in teaching is not the best way.I get frustrated when participatory learning is bypassed. I feel like the learners have so much to offer. As a program planner, I would like to stress on the value of a person or a learner in the learning process as very ethical and critical. This is one reality that I would like to emphasize in my practice. A learner-centered program is needed to effect change in a training program. There are messages than can be more effectively conveyed to the learners or audience through participatory method. People learn by themselves.Learning is not imposed or enforced. In his 1982 book, Living, Loving and Learning, Buscaglia cited Carl Rogers who wrote: You know that I don’t believe that anyone has ever thought anything to anyone. I question the efficacy of teaching. The only thing that I know is that anyone who wants to learn will learn. And maybe a teacher is a facilitator, a person who puts things down and shows people how exciting and wonderful it is and asks them to eat. (p. 7) We are all learners. We learn from each other.Even experts learn many things from their participants. No man has the monopoly of knowledge and experiences. One man’s learning differs from others. We all have our own way of learning. Answer to Question 4b I have not left a planning situation even if I am not totally sold to the agreed ideas or methods; even if my own suggestions are downplayed. I stayed to learn from them. I still joined to see if their methods based on their belief system will work. It is all about respect and giving opportunities to other parties to have their own way.I hanged on to see the results of the evaluation. Probably, what would make me leave is the honest and face-to-face rejection of my ideas after a poor training program. I would leave if they lost trust and direct all the b lame to me. I would humbly resign. I will not burn the bridge between us but hope to re-connect with them again in the future, should they need my services again. After all, the world is small and who knows, we may end up needing one another at the end of the road someday. References Buscaglia, L. (1982). Living, loving and learning. New York: Random House.

Resilience Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Resilience - Assignment Example Cases of terrorist attacks are being put as a story of the past with several methods to fight terrorism attacks being put in order. Moreover, disaster resilience is vitality. The federal government has been in the front hand, encouraging community resilience as a way to ensure a productive nation. A resilient nation is a prosperous nation. Resilient people, organizations, and even countries are blessed with such an outlook that they can change course and soldier on, even after misfortunes. Resilience is the will to recover from or adjust easily to misfortunes or change. Usually the affected becomes successful, strong or healthy after something bad happens. It’s always the goal of any country, organization or to bounce back to the normal state especially when hit by either calamities or economic downfalls. Measures have been put in place to ensure that these countries, organization or firms adopt resilience. Rather than making failure overcome them, they rise from their ashes a nd move forward. Sportsmen and women are advised to be resilient during training and competitions as in the end; it produces positive results. Resilience is quite different from resistance though the two share numerous similarities. Resilient people, organizations, and even countries are blessed with such an outlook that they can change course and soldier on, even after misfortunes. Resilience and resistance have quite some similarities and differences. Psychologists have identified that positive attitude and being optimistic makes one be resilient.

Retailer Relationships Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Retailer Relationships - Essay Example Out of all the different brands of retailers in the US, the most influential brand that has affected my life and the life-style of millions around the world is Wal-Mart. This is the main reason why I choose Wal-Mart for this study. Wal-Mart has grown to become the market leader with 4,423 stores and with yearly sales of $307.73 billion, being tripled the total sales figure of the second largest retailer- The Kroger Co (Stores.org, 2012). Its dynamic management strategies and most importantly the business success have influenced me to become a fan of Wal-Mart in its Facebook page and this has made me choose the company for this study. Customer relationship is an antecedent to the value creation and sharing of consumer-seller interaction (Varey, 2002, p. 1). In recent years, building relationship with customers has become an extremely important marketing strategy to help a firm attract, retain and maintain customers for longer period. Wal-Mart has successfully used several social media networks such as Facebook and Twitter to create stronger relationship with its customers. According to recent reports, Wal-Mart continues to tap social media to create stronger relationship with tech-savvy customers with a view to establish stronger brand equity among its customers. Building customer relationship will certainly help the company maintain long term advantages of customer loyalty, which is basically customers’ commitment to repeated purchase and re-patronization for a preferred goods or service. Konrad (2012) found Wal-Mart as the first topper in social media starts since it has more than 15 million fans on the social network. The company has set specific guidelines for its Facebook and Twitter users, asking its customers to strictly adhere to the social media rules and giving them instructions such as be polite and courteous, stay on topic, keep it real and encouraging customers complaints, feedback and opinions (corporate.walmart.com, 2012). Prior to

How to Manage the Risk Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 2

How to Manage the Risk - Essay Example The major purpose of the bank is to support the favorable economic conditions which will help to stabilize the monetary policy of USA. This factor includes price stabilization, money supply, acquisition of credit and increase in overall growth and employment. As a central bank, it also needs to monitor and supervise the operations of other commercial banks to make sure the safety and security and to protect the interest of the customers. The most important enforcement capability of Federal Reserve is that it controls inflation and generates employment opportunities in the United States. It also helps the US govt. and other financial institutions in the US in their operations. There are mainly three types of tools used by Federal Reserve Bank to implement the monetary policy- Open Market Operations, Discount Rate, Reserve Requirement. Monetary policy is set by basically raising or declining the discount rate that is charged to banks for interbank lending of surplus reserves. This rate is decided by the interbank market but FED also influences that by usage of three tools that are mentioned above. Consequences of Federal Reserve are that Federal funds rate actually affects the long-term interest rates in the economy. Fed is able to keep monetary and financial conditions stable with its monetary policy. Fed can also make policies that will help to add more reserves to the banks which will encourage the lending of low-interest rates thus influencing the growth of money and credit in the economy.... This will leverage the returns. But as the economy goes downwards, assets prices also tend to go downward and it magnifies the loss. Same was happened in the case of Lehman Brothers. They invested in Mortgage backed securities and when the housing price bubble started to default the investments became illiquid. Assume that a well managed retail bank might have a leverage of 12 times which means for every 1 pound it can lend 12 pound. But in the year 2004, Lehman had a leverage of 20 and then it increased to 44 in 2007. But then the assets prices had started to move downside. The situation had become like with 10000 pound someone was buying a property using 440000 pound mortgage and the borrower of the bank became insolvent and thus the bank. Inconsistent management decisions are responsible for it. Management should have thought again before investing in subprime mortgages. Liquidity Businesses mainly fail not because of lack of profits, but it fails because of liquidity crunch. Lehm an Brothers had its assets and liabilities based on a small amount of liquidity. In other words it didn’t have enough ready cash or liquid assets to face the crisis. When market fell, other commercial banks started to protect own selves by using Lehman’s base of credits. It means that Lehman was losing it liquidity t a very fast pace and by seen that other banks refused to trade with the company and market lost its confidence over the investment bank which was the final nail in the coffin of Lehman. The bank became totally insolvent. Overconfidence of the management that it will earn liquidity in proper time was the most vulnerable decision for the bank. Losses After the devastation of twin towers in USA in 2001, interest rates started to crash

Freedom and emancipation of women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Freedom and emancipation of women - Essay Example On the other hand, men were more flexible and could look for work and live away from homes, while still expecting to have their wives take care of their children at home. In Kate Chopin story â€Å"the story of an hour†, women are depicted as being oppressed, but repressing their feeling despite their desire for freedom. The theme of oppression of women in the society is best captured in the story of an hour where Mrs. Mallard; the main author who is depicted as having a heart trouble. This is the reason why the death of her husband is brought with gentleness (Chopin 788). This is a disease that Chopin refers to be the one of the causes of trouble facing Mrs. Ballard. In the story, the heart disease is a symbol of the pain that Chopin has to contend with, one that makes her sick and remain at home, while her husband goes to work. The interpretation of the heart diseases ties with the notion that women’s places was home and not in the industry, which was considered as a playing field for men only. This was a belief that men held during the nineteenth century, at a time when women were trying to liberate themselves from chains of having to take roles as wives at home. But as indicated in the story, the struggles of women like Mrs. Mallard bore no success as she succumbed to death because of her heart trouble. Mrs. Mallard is depicted as a young woman in the story and yet all she could do was stay at home, while the husband went to work to fend for the family. Chopin’s portrays Mrs. Mallard as a young woman who has a fair and calm face. These descriptions indicate the status of women in the society being that most of them had the potential to take over roles in the industries and other domains (Stein 54). Needless to say, the theme of oppressions seems to be overstretched on women like Mr. Mallard who have to wait at home for the husband to come home. In addition, it is clear to point that men made women hold gender roles at home advancing the theme of oppression. In what seems as a twist, Mr. Mallard later becomes happy because the death of her husband meant his freedom. In the story, Chopin describes Mrs. Mallard as having a dull stare, one that illustrates the kind of life she has gone through. The dull eyes present readers with the feeling of women have having been stagnated and withdrawn in the quest for freedom. This notion is true considering the fact that women during the 19th century continued to hold a role at home with none having the chance to take part in other facets of life. In the story, it is apparent that Mrs. Mallard is less independent in her marriage, which indicates the oppression that women were going through in their society. To a great extent, it can be argued that married women like Mrs. Mallard were less independent because of their allegiance to the will of their husbands. Historically, the women’s quest from freedom in the nineteenth century reflected the difficulty of women making sig nificant breakthroughs in a society where men were parochial. In another perspective, the dull stare reveal the routine that characterized the lives of women being that many of them stayed at home. This signifies a form of oppression that made women restricted to their homes rather than joint the social and economic life experienced by their male counterparts. To some degree, Chopin reveal that women despite being oppressed remained tied to their husbands to the chain of oppression tha

Thomas Hobbes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Thomas Hobbes - Essay Example Contrarily, by the theory of his equality and the seed of superiority already existent within everyman becomes the eternal hamartia, which clashes with the very idea of the "common power" that man tries to bind the others into, where each will always try to supercede the other. "Warre" is the result of every man trying to hold every other man in awe! The will is not inclined towards any disposition and everybody is live "without security" and depends on his own individual strength, which only makes his life "nasty, brutish and short.". However, Hobbes points out that these acts of passion and desire that override man's nature and make him abuse one another are no sin and are only viewed as wrong when measured against some Law that makes it look so. Thus, he talks about man's nature pitted against the Law that can only be laid down when it agrees with man and which then gives man the consciousness of it's existence and what it forbids. Therefore, where there is no law or no consciousness of what is forbidden (he takes the example of primitive America ruled by savages) where the notions of justice and injustice have no place because they are not part of any faculty of the mind or the body.

Urban Planners Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Urban Planners - Essay Example Planners who are in the public role often serve the public and act as valued technical advisors in the community's political environment (Garvin, 2002). Urban planners develop often develop long and short term plans for the use and revitalization of land. These plans facilitate the growth of urban and rural communities, as well as the region in which they are allocated. They assist the regional officials to reduce economical, social and environmental problems. This is done by proposing the location of schools, roads among other infrastructure. In addition to that, they recommend the zoning regulations for private possessions (Smith, 2006). According to Grogan (2002), Planners promote the best utilization of public land resources which are meant for commercial, residential, institutional and recreation purposes. They often formulate plans relating to development of new infrastructure, for instance new schools, new roads and public housing. Moreover, they help in making decisions about resource development and protecting the environment in its totality. Planners and developers are often involved in environment issues like wetland preservation, pollution control, location of new landfills and forest conservation. Planners may assist in the drafting of legislation of social, environmental and economical matters, for instance sheltering the homeless, new park, or making the region very attractive to businesses (Smith, 2006). Urban planners study and report on the current utilization of land for residential and community purposes before making plans for the community development. Their reports include information on the capacity and location of schools, airports, highways, libraries, recreational and cultural sites. They also provide records on the characteristics of the community, industries in the community, and employment and economic trends. They try to use the data obtained to optimize land use for public structures and facilities (Robert, 2003). The planners often prepare reports that show the cost of their programs and how they are carried out. Furthermore, they examine the suggested facilities, to know whether they will meet the needs of the growing population. They keep the records legal and economic issues, which are responsible for the building codes, zoning codes and environmental regulations. In addition to that, they ensure that the developers and builders are in apposition to follow the codes and the regulations (Garvin, 2002). Planners also deal with the land issues that arise due to the population movements. For instance, in Huntsville, the population growth and economic development has led to creation of more jobs out side the urban areas (Robert, 2003). As a result, the need for public transportation will increase, and it is the responsibility of the planners to model and develop suitable transportation systems and report them to the planning boards as well as the public (Garvin, 2002). Computers are very necessary urban planning process; planners use them to analyze and record information collected, and to prepare reports and proposals for government executives. Spreadsheets, computer databases, and analytical techniques are used to forecast future trends of employment, transportation, housing, or population. Urban

Opportunity cost Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Opportunity cost - Essay Example Different perspectives however exist for definition of opportunity cost but they revolve around the cost that can be derived from the next best alternative. Ferguson, an economist, for example, defines opportunity cost in terms of resources and as mount of resources for producing the next best alternative, which is forgone in order to produce a subject commodity. This establishes cost of the two commodities as a common measure for determining sacrificed cost for a production. Henderson offers a definition that is closer to cost measure by defining opportunity cost as the â€Å"value of the highest-valued alternative† for which resources in a production could have been used (Hussain, 2010, P. 158). Leftwich’s definition of opportunity cost as the value of foregone option for production in which resources would have been used is also consistent with the focus on cost of resources in production of a commodity (Hussain, 2010). It is however important to note that opportunit y cost is not market price of an alternative commodity or market price of materials that could have been used in the alternative. Commodities that are produced from a similar material may have a relationship between opportunity cost and market cost but this is not always the case because of the subjective nature of opportunity cost (Baumol & Blinder, 2011). Opportunity cost is therefore the value, and not necessarily market price, of resources use in a production, which could have been used in production of the next best alternative production. Opportunity cost can be either implicit or explicit and existence of reward for involved sacrifice establishes the distinction. Explicit costs in opportunity cost are those costs that are incurred for payments, in monetary or otherwise terms, to stakeholders that sacrifice their resources for production of a commodity.

Reflection Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 6

Reflection Paper - Essay Example This also creates an ambience where markets, labour and communities are able to function in harmony. Organizational responsibility also involves social investment which has become a necessary part of any business. Transparency of business in the social and environmental context has helped to gain public trust and recognition. Today, organizational responsibility has a much wider implication than merely providing jobs and contributing to the economy through taxes and employment. The concept of organisation responsibilities has been widening over the years. According to surveys, developing a good corporate socially responsible strategy can deliver real business benefits. Three steps are involved in the process of making ethical decisions. These are: moral awareness, moral judgment and ethical behavior. Moral awareness involves identifying the dilemma in ethics. Moral judgment is the acumen required to decide between the right and the wrong. Lastly, ethical behavior means choosing the right course of action. Corporate reputation is the esteem with which an organisation is held by its internal and external stakeholders. The stakeholders base their notion on the company’s past actions, profitability and future behavior. Very often, organizations overlook the importance of having a good corporate reputation and concentrate on other urgencies. But, this does not help in the long run. It is seen that organizations which have focused more on building their own goodwill have succeeded more than others. They have considered their â€Å"goodwill† to be the most valuable asset of their organisation. Some of the benefits of a good corporate reputation are as follows. Economic responsibilities, legal responsibilities, ethical responsibilities and philanthropic responsibilities are the four components of the corporate social responsibility pyramid. Economic responsibilities

The Individual and the Government Essay Example for Free

The Individual and the Government Essay Our society is composed of many individuals who come from almost all walks of life. The purposeful functions of the individuals in the society benefit the state at large. The same is true for the performance of the state, giving us the idea that the state has the capability to provide not only the needs of the individuals but the also the needs of its own. Every individual in every state has their respective roles that, when summed altogether, comprise the entire benefits for the state. Quite similarly, every state also has its own distinctive roles that benefit the society in general. The government of the state recognizes the individual in many ways, and the most prominent of this comes in the form of the laws that promote and maintain the welfare of the individuals. On the other hand, the individual citizens recognize the roles and responsibilities of the government towards the people and the state.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is a fact that individuals are one of the key components of the state, and that their roles in the state contribute to the preservation and continuance of the welfare of the general society. Many of the philosophers from the Renaissance to the contemporary times have emphasized the importance of individual human beings in the formation of the state. A number of these philosophers, specifically those who have proposed their own theories of social contract, stress the point that human beings agreed to form the state in order to preserve their lives as opposed to living a solitary life. Even the government is comprised of individual members each with specific mandated functions that altogether build-up the internal structure and organization of the government. With this aggregate membership of individual citizens, the government is able to proceed with its roles in the state and deliver the needs of the people, hence, exercising its part as the authority in the state.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While the state is an independent entity whose authority does not depend on other independent states, the state nevertheless needs the citizens who will fill-up the positions in the government in order to give it the capacity to perform its roles. The role of the citizens does not end there. It is also true that the individual citizens of the state pay taxes that serve as the source of the government’s finances. Even the minors pay taxes through the form of purchasing taxable goods and other services available within the territory of the state. While these are just some of the legally binding responsibilities of the citizens, the scope of these responsibilities is of primary significance to the well-being of the state—which is why they are bounded by the law. The individuals may not choose not to fulfill these responsibilities because the law prescribes them to do so.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The state is essentially important, and that it serves as the identity of the summation of all individuals that belong to a single nation. Since the state is composed of individual citizens, it can also be said that the individuals share a form of authority as well. Had it not been for the smaller parts that comprise the whole, the whole would not have materialized. The same holds true for every state or government. Hence, even though the government is considered to be an authority in the state, the importance of the individuals should not be discounted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The significance of the individual not only in the formation of the state but also in the maintenance of the state should all the more be recognized. The power and the authority of the state is largely influenced by the roles and performances of individuals, and that a poor functioning of the individual members of the government and of the state in general greatly affects the state. Thus, the state should acknowledge the welfare of the individuals and realize the fact that, although there may be other sources one can contend, these individuals are one of the significant foundation of the power and authority of the state. References Krueger, Anne O. Government Failures in Development. The Journal of Economic Perspectives 4.3 (1990): 11-13. Palmer, Tom G. Review: Social Contract, Free Ride: A Study of the Public Goods Problem by Anthony De Jasay. Ethics 101.3 (1991): 651-52.

Absorption and Marginal Costing Methods

Absorption and Marginal Costing Methods Absorption costing treats the costs of all manufacturing components (direct material, direct labour, variable overhead and fixed overhead) as inventoriable or product costs in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), (BARFIELD et al., 2001). 1.2 Marginal Costing Variable costing is a cost accumulation method that includes only variable production costs (direct material, direct labour, and variable overhead) as product or inventoriable costs. (BARFIELD et al., 2001) 1.3 Similarities between Both Methods Marginal costing Absorption costing Closing inventories are valued at marginal production cost. Closing inventories are valued at full production cost. Fixed costs are period costs. Fixed costs are absorbed into unit costs. Cost of sales does not include a share of fixed  overheads. Cost of sales does include a share of fixed overheads 1.4 Influences of Marginal and Absorption costing on the pricing policy Pricing decisions: Since marginal cost per unit is constant from period to period within a short span of time, firm decisions on pricing policy can be taken, If fixed cost is included, the unit cost will change from day to day depending upon the volume of output. Overhead Variances: Overheads are recovered in costing on the pre-determined rates. This creates the problem of treatment of under or over-recovery of overhead, if fixed overhead were included Marginal costing avoids such under or over recovery of overheads. True profit: It is argued that under the marginal costing technique, the stock of finished goods and work-in-progress are carried on marginal cost basis and the fixed expenses are written off to profit and loss account as period cost. This shows the true profit of the period. Break-even analysis: Marginal costing helps in the preparation of break-even analysis, which shows the effect of increasing or decreasing production activity on the profitability of the company. Control over expenditure: Segregation of expenses as fixed and variable helps the management to exercise control over expenditure. The management can compare the actual variable expenses with the budgeted variable expenses and take corrective action through, variance analysis. Business decision-making: Marginal costing helps the management in taking a number of business decisions like make or buy, discontinuance of a particular product, replacement of machines etc.) (BRAGG, STEVEN M., 2007) 1.4.1 Influences of Marginal Costing It recognizes the importance of fixed costs in production; This method is accepted by Inland Revenue as stock is not undervalued; This method is always used to prepare financial accounts; When production remains constant but sales fluctuate absorption costing will show less fluctuation in net profit and Unlike marginal costing where fixed costs are agreed to change into variable cost, it is cost into the stock value hence distorting stock valuation. (Accounting for management) (BRAGG, STEVEN M., 2007) 1.4.2 Influences of Absorption Costing (It is simple to operate. There are no apportionments, which are frequently done on an arbitrary basis, of fixedcosts. Many costs, such as the marketing directors salary, are indivisible by nature. Fixed costs will be the same regardless of the volume of output, because they are period costs. It  makes sense, therefore, to charge them in full as a cost to the period. The cost to produce an extra unit is the variable production cost. It is realistic to value  closing inventory items at this directly attributable cost. Under or over absorption of overheads is avoided. Marginal costing provides the best information for decision making.) (KAPLAN, 2008) Classifications of cost systems in terms of object: function, product (services) and behaviour, analysing probable causes of cost variances and offer directors the needed advice to improve performance. 2. Cost by Object 2.1.1 Direct Cost Direct costs are costs which can be directly identified with a specific cost unit or cost centre. There are three main types of direct cost: Direct materials for-example, cloth for making shirts Direct labour for-example, the wages of the workers stitching the cloth to make the shirts Direct expenses for-example, the cost of maintaining the sewing machine used to make the shirts. 2.1.2 Indirect Cost Indirect costs are costs which cannot be directly identified with a specific cost unit or cost centre. Examples of indirect costs include the following: The total of indirect costs is known as overheads. indirect materials these include materials that cannot be traced to an individual shirt, for example, cotton indirect labour for example, the cost of a supervisor who supervises the shirt makers Indirect expenses for example, the cost of renting the factory where the shirts are manufactured. 2.2 Cost by Function 2.2.1 Production Cost Production costs are the costs which are incurred when raw materials are converted into finished goods and part finished goods (work in progress). 3.2.2 Non-Production Cost 2Nonproduction costs are costs that are not directly associated with the production processes in a manufacturing organisation. 2.3 Cost by behaviour 2.3.1 Variable Cost Variable costs are costs that tend to vary in total with the level of activity. As activity levels increase then total variable costs will also increase. Note that as total costs increase with activity levels, the cost per unit of variable costs remains constant. Examples of variable costs include direct costs such as raw materials and direct labour 2.3.2 Fixed Cost A fixed cost is a cost which is incurred for an accounting period, and which, within certain activity levels remains constant. Note that the total cost remains constant over a given level of activity but the cost per unit falls as the level of activity increases. (KAPLAN, 2008) Examples of fixed costs: rent business rates Executive salaries. 2.3.3 Stepped Fix Cost This is a type of fixed cost that is only fixed within certain levels of activity. Once the upper limit of an activity level is reached then a new higher level of fixed cost becomes relevant. Examples of stepped fixed costs: Warehousing costs (as more space is required, more warehouses must be purchased or rented) Supervisors wages (as the number of employees increases, more supervisors are required). 2.3.4 Semi Variable Cost Semi variable costs contain both fixed and variable cost elements and are therefore partly affected by fluctuations in the level of activity. †¢ Semi variable costs can be shown graphically as follows Examples of semi variable costs: Electricity bills (fixed standing charge plus variable cost per unit of electricity consumed) Telephone bills (fixed line rental plus variable cost per call) 2.4 Cause of Cost Variances (Sales price variances may be caused by: unplanned price increases (sales price variance) unexpected fall in demand due to recession (sales volume variance) Materials price variances may be caused by: supplies from different sources unexpected general price increases Materials usage variances may be caused by: a higher or lower incidence of scrap an alteration to product design Labour efficiency variances may be caused by: changes in working conditions or working methods, for example, better supervision consequences of the learning effect) (BPP, 2007) Responsibility accounting as a system of planning and control of the organisation. 3. Responsibility Centres Responsibility accounting systems identify, measure, and report on the performance of people controlling the activities of responsibility centres. Responsibility centre sari classified according to their managers scope of authority and type of financial responsibility. Companies may define their organizational units in various ways based on management accountability for one or more income-producing factors-costs, revenues, profits, and/or asset base. (BARFIELD et al., 2001) 3.1 Cost Centres In a cost centre, the manager has the authority only to incur costs and is specifically evaluated on the basis of how well costs are controlled. Theoretically, revenues cannot exist in a cost centre because the unit does not engage in revenue producing activity. Cost centres commonly include service and administrative departments. For example, the equipment maintenance centre in a hospital may be a cost centre because it does not charge for its services, but it does incur costs. (BARFIELD et al., 2001) 3.2 Revenue Centre A revenue centre is strictly defined as an organizational unit for which a manager is accountable only for the generation of revenues and has no control over setting selling prices or budgeting costs. In many retail stores, the individual sales departments are considered independent units, and managers are evaluated based on the total revenues generated by their departments. Departmental managers, however, may not be given the authority to change selling prices to affect volume, and often they do not participate in the budgeting process. Thus, the departmental managers might have no impact on costs. (BARFIELD et al., 2001) 3.3 Profit Centre In a profit centre, the manager is responsible for generating revenues and planning and controlling expenses related to current activity. (Expenses not under a profit centre managers control are those related to long-term investments in plant assets; such a situation creates a definitive need for separate evaluations of the subunit anther subunits manager.) A profit centre managers goal is to maximize the centres net income. (BARFIELD et al., 2001) 3.4 Investment Centre An investment centre is an organizational unit in which the manager is responsible for generating revenues and planning and controlling expenses. In addition, the centres manager has the authority to acquire, use, and dispose of plant assets in a manner that seeks to earn the highest feasible rate of return on the centres asset base. (BARFIELD et al., 2001)

Clostridium Difficile Infection: Causes and Treatment

Clostridium Difficile Infection: Causes and Treatment Clostridium difficile   Introduction Clostridium difficile generally written as C. difficile is a bacterium (germ). It presents in a small quantity in the gut of many people without harming person. But, when the quantity of C. difficile bacteria increases in the gut, then it can cause infection. The C. difficile bacteria usually do not create infection in healthy people. Though, some  antibiotics can disturb the regular balance of usual bacteria in the gut that shield against C. difficile infection. This infection most commonly affects people whose treatment requires prolonged use of antibiotics. During use of antibiotics, if other harmless bacteria are killed, then this will allows C. difficile to grow in larger numbers than normal circumstances. The bacteria start to produce toxins that cause the symptoms given below. Therefore, if a person is taking antibiotics and He/she has C. difficile bacteria in gut, then bacteria may flourish and can cause an infection. This is a problem normally occur while taking many of the commonly used antibiotics. Spread of Clostridium difficile infection C. difficile bacteria are usually found in whole the environment — in air, soil, water, human and animal faeces. It is also found in food products, such as processed meats. C. difficile infection commonly associated with hospitals where a higher percentage of people carry the bacteria. C. difficile bacteria spread to food, surfaces when infectious people do not clearly wash their hands. The bacteria creates spores that can be persevered in a place for months. If you touch a surface polluted with C. difficile, then you may then unintentionally swallow the bacteria. Symptoms of the disease The symptoms of adisease can range from mild diarrhoea to a severe life-threatening inflammation of the bowel. The symptoms of a Clostridium difficileinfection generally grow when you are taking, or just finished taking an antibiotic. Seldom, symptoms mayappear up to 10 weeks after you finish taking antibiotics. List of symptoms include: Watery diarrhoea (sometimes can be blood-stained) three to four times a day; may be more. Colitis (inflammation of a larger bowel). Loss of appetite abdominal cramping and pain Nausea a high temperature (fever) of above 38 ºC (100.4 ºF) painful abdominal cramps No treatment may be required in mild cases only abandoning the antibiotics or drinking plenty of fluids is required to cure infection. However, cure with specific antibiotics is desirable in more severe cases. Identification of Clostridium difficile Infection Clostridium difficile Infection is identified in a patient in following cases; Anyone who develops diarrhoea who had used antibiotics within the previous two months, and/or When diarrhoea was developed due to stay at hospital, or after few weeks of releasing from hospital. Anyone has abdominal pain, or fever; Anyone has a diagnosis of colonoscopy, pseudo membranes on sigmoidoscopy or histological/pathological diagnosis of CDI; Anyone has a diagnosis of toxic mega colon. Laboratory testing of a sample of stool can be carried out to confirm the diagnosis. The test identifies the toxin material in the stool sample that is produced by C. difficile. An X-ray of abdomen, CT scan, or a Blood tests can be conducted if a patient more severe infection. Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection Clostridium difficile infection treatment depends upon severity of the illness. No treatment is necessary if one has no symptom. However, symptoms are shown various treatment are suggested for mild to severe infection. Mild infection treatment Patients having mild infection can be treated at home. If patient has mild symptoms of aC. difficile infection, infection can be controlled by just withdrawing antibiotics that have caused the problem. This will let the normal harmless bacteria to regrow in your gut. The excess growth of C. difficile should then decrease and symptoms often ease. Actually, many people will stopped the antibiotic anyway, after the completion of antibiotic course. In many cases where the signs are minor, stopping the antibiotics proved sufficient to clear the infection. Modest to severe infection If infection is of severe nature, patient will usually be admitted into hospital, so that patient can be treated and closely look after. If you have symptoms that are more bothersome, such as severediarrhoea or colitis, following treatment is prescribed to cure the infection: 1. Taking an antibiotic In case of severe symptoms such as severe diarrhoea or colitis, patients will be given antibiotics that can damage C. difficile bacteria. In the start, in moderate cases metronidazole is prescribed to cure the infection. But in severe cases vancomycinor fidaxomicin may be used to ease any colitis and stop perforation of colon. Symptoms then usually ease within two to three days, although it can take a week to make a significant recovery. Likely side effects of these antibiotics are stomach pain, feeling or being sick. 2. Fluid replacement In diarrhoea lot of fluid released from body and body becomes dehydrated. So, it is very important that fluid must be replaced in the body to maintain body’s water level. This reduction can easily be eliminated by drinking extra fluids. But, in case of severe, fluids should be given through a drip into veins or by nasogastric tube. 3. Surgery in rare cases Surgery cases are less than 1%. It is required only in life-threatening cases to remove a damaged section of bowel. Severe cases ofC. difficile infection can befatal,especially when they occur in those people who faces severe illness. Prevention C. difficile infection can be spread very easily. Normally, it can be prevented by maintaining good hygiene in healthcare surroundings, such as regularly washing hands and cleaning surfaces using bleach products. When someone is attending the patient having C. difficile infection, he/she can reduce the risk of spreading the infection by washing hands before and after entering the patient room. Soap and water should be preferred over Alcohol gel as in not effective against germs. Preventing the spread of infection into hospital I would implement strict guidelines about maintaining the hygienic environment in the hospital to avoid the spread of C. difficile infection. Possible guidelines would be; If possible, infectious patient should have their own room, washbasin and toilet facilities. Everyone should regularly wash their hands thoroughly with soap and water, particularly after using the toilet or anyone coming from outside to meet the patient. All the hospital staff must wear disposable gloves and aprons and they must wash their hands with water and soap before and after attending patient. Practice will be made of using soap and water should be used as a medium of washing instead of Hand gel because hand gel not kill the spores created by C. difficile. Visitors must also wear disposable gloves and aprons and must wash their hands before entering and leaving the room. Floors, Toilets, surfaces, bedpans, bedding, etc. should be clean washed regularly. Conclusion Clostridium difficile infection is caused by bacteria. It can range from severe to mild. Proper prevention and use of medicine can reduce the infection in very limited time. References Zar, Fred A., et al. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clinical Infectious Diseases 45.3 (2007): 302-307. Wilcox, Mark H. Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 41.suppl 3 (1998): 41-46. Bignardi, G. E. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. Journal of Hospital Infection 40.1 (1998): 1-15. Gerding, Dale N., Carlene A. Muto, and Robert C. Owens. Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases 46.Supplement 1 (2008): S32-S42. Wilcox, Mark H. Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 41.suppl 3 (1998): 41-46.

Never To Feel His Love Again :: Personal Narrative Essay Example

Never To Feel His Love Again "Early this morning tragedy struck West High School" Principal Simmons' somber voice echoed over the intercom just after the first period tardy bell on Tuesday, January 7, 1997. The grave tone of his voice immediately got my attention as I sat in Spanish class, and I listened for an explanation, expecting to hear that my World History teacher, who was struggling with cancer, had died. Mr. Simmons continued, "Mr. David Butler was killed in a house fire early this morning." Mr. Simmons still spoke, but I was oblivious to everything except the name "Mr. Butler." In total shock I sat motionless with my mind racing. Suddenly and uncontrollably the tears came. I could not speak. I could not feel. This man changed my life; he gave me a true love of learning. He was my friend, and I never even got a chance to tell him. I walked into Mr. Butler's class at Piedmont Open Middle School for the first time as a timid eighth grader eager to learn geometry, yet a little wary of the entire class of ninth graders I was joining. From day one, Mr. Butler demonstrated a love of math and an even deeper love of his students. Granted, Mr. Butler was hard on the students giving loads of homework and almost impossible tests, but he was also a friend who joked with us in class and cared about our lives. Respect was a must in his class, and those who crossed Mr. Butler found themselves on the floor listening as he counted out ten push-ups. He wasn't just a math teacher; he was a role model, a father-figure. Due to his passion for teaching and great love of his students, Mr. Butler decided to take a course over the summer so he could teach ten students, including myself, Algebra II Trig in the ninth grade. During this year our friendship blossomed and my true love of math began. All year long we fought over Duke and Carolina, and since I was such a "psycho-fan" he was the first to tease me those few times that UNC lost at football or basketball. I loved Mr. Butler; I loved his class, and from then on math was my favorite subject and my main focus in school. Mr. Butler instilled this love for math as his own love of the subject sparked mine.

Bram Stokers Dracula :: Dracula Essays

Bram Stoker's Dracula         Ã‚  Ã‚   The setting of the story begins in 19th century Europe, in the eerie country of Transylvania.   A solicitor from England named Jonathan Harker is sent by a business man to meet with an old Count named Dracula at his castle located far from civilization.   Residents of Transylvania who become aware of his destination begin crossing themselves and giving him garlic and blessings.   As a result of these gestures, Mr. Harker soon develops an uneasy feeling about visiting the mysterious Count.   He arrives at Castle Dracula regardless, and makes his acquaintances with Dracula.   He soon realizes that the count is no normal human, but an evil, blood-sucking vampire, who can command animals and elements with the wave of his hand. Harker escapes but the Count has devised an intricate plan to move to London and exercise his evil forces on innocent people there.   However, a group of friends, including an open-minded but ingenious professor, a psychologist, an American, a rich man, as well as Jon an Harker and his wife Mina, learn of the Count's sinister plan and pledge to destroy him before he can create an army of un-dead vampires.   They systematically destroy his coffins with holy wafers and chase him out of England back to Castle Dracula.   There they carry out an ultimate plan to destroy Dracula.      Ã‚  Ã‚   The Author uses suspense as a storytelling device rather effectively throughout the story.   There are a fair number of parts in which the reader is left suspended on the edge of   seat, eager to find out what is to happen next.   However, there were parts where suspense could be used in a manner that would enhance the gravity of the plot.   Nonetheless, The book is written in a unique way that allows suspense to be used easily and effectively built up.   Dracula is written in first person like many other novels but then it differs slightly.   The book starts off as a first person Journal of the first character describing his experiences.   But then it switches to someone else's journal, and then to letters between two characters, and later to a newspaper article.   It follows this pattern

Fibromyalgia: No Longer a Catchall Diagnosis Essay -- Biology Essays R

Fibromyalgia: No Longer a Catchall Diagnosis [2] I first developed an interest in fibromyalgia syndrome through my mother. About ten years ago, she began complaining of achiness, sharp pain in various parts of her body-specifically the neck, and constant fatigue and insomnia. Being treated for clinical depression, however, my mother put these annoyances off as simply more symptoms of her depression and the results of extreme stress and tension. It was only very recently, within the past year while receiving massage therapy, that her masseuse happened to mention that my mother might have fibromyalgia, a relatively recent syndrome to enter into medical circles. Since then, my mother has been diagnosed as having fibromyalgia. This information does little good outside of peace of mind, as both the causes and the cures of these syndromes are not certain. Fibromyalgia is characterized most prominently, of course, by pain[1]. Pain can be experienced both as widespread and general 'achiness' felt throughout the body and also at specific 'trigger points,' which are areas that radiate intense pain in the muscle fiber. To meet the medical definition of 'fybromyalgia' the patient must respond to eleven out of the eighteen most common trigger points, the patient must have trigger points in all four quadrants of the body, and the patient must have experienced continuous pain for at least three months[3]. I will discuss these 'trigger points' in more depth later in this paper. There are multitudinous other symptoms which are also known to be associated with fibromyalgia. A few of the most significant among these are difficulty sleeping, intense fatigue, weight gain and loss, muscle spasms and loss of muscular control, mood swings and o... ...lgia. Particularly in the past few years as knowledge of fibromyalgia has become increasingly integrated into the scientific community, there has been a greater push towards the development of possible treatments-the two major possibilities being guaifeneson and Pycnogenol ®. Sources Cited 1. CFS Days http://www.sunflower.org/~cfsdays.htm 2. Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome by Dr. Starlanyla and J. Nickson http://corp.sover.net/devstar/index.htm 3. Fibromyalgia Symptoms http://sunflower.org/~cfsdays/symptom2.htm 4. Fibromyalgia Treatment http://www.medhelp.org/www/piic/piic3.htm 5. A Guide For Patients http://www.sunflower.org/~cfsdays/nye-pt.htm 7. Pycnogenol ® http://www.mt.net.au/~willieb/pycnogenol/index.htm 8. The Use of Uricosuric Drugs in Fibromyalgia http://sunflower.org/~cfsdays/urico96.htm

Contingency Theory of Leadership Essay

At my workplace we have sales goals that we have to meet and part of my job is to ensure that the staff is achieving their goals and if they are falling behind, I help them find ways to better their selling skills and recognize opportunities. In the table below, categorize different leadership approaches that could be used in the work environment you have described. Provide different suggestions for each of the four approaches to leadership. Directive approachSupportive approach The company has weekly product knowledge training so that the employees know about the products that they are selling. The employees are also rewarded incentives that relate directly to their goals and are aware of their job duties (Jones, 2007) and new procedures shared in our weekly meetings. The individual goals also relate to work schedules the full time employees goals are higher than the part-time employees. The supportive approach to leadership of this group the management is open and very approachable (Jones, 2007). The management also has goals to meet and are always willing to offer advice and additional training to employees. They also meet with employees individually and find out what motivates that specific employee because everyone is different. Participative approachAchievement-oriented approach The employees participate in creating individual goals for themselves (Jones, 2007) and for the branch. They create in-branch promotions and try to make sales fun. Employee suggestions for improvement are put into action and employees are commended for their work ethics and participation with branch promotions. The goals that are set for the employees are realistic, not outrageous (Jones, 2007). By observing the amount of branch traffic, and amount of customers that do not currently have a specific product we can set goals that are achievable.

American medical care Essay

These early immigrants survived the harsh times and difficult American climate as well as the wilderness on primitive basic instincts. The early settlements were often ravaged by starvation and disease. During the colonial era, doctors’ education was informal. Most were literate, but some who were raised outside of New England were not. A man who wanted to practice medicine did not need any type of certification. Most did have a period of apprenticeship with an established physician, but even this was not a requirement. Up until the late 19th century, very few doctors had a college education. Medical facilities were unofficial. Most patients were treated in their homes. However, even the smallest towns had poorhouses, where needy people could live and receive limited medical care. The few hospitals that opened in North America during the colonial period were opened in places like Quebec and New Orleans. Public health was unknown in North America at this time. Towns and cities did not have boards of health except during times of epidemics. Because most places did not have public water or sewer systems, most Americans got their water from pumps and used outhouses until well into the 19th century. There was no trash collection so the streets became a breeding ground for all types of disease. There were a few attempts to influence public health. For example, when smallpox vaccinations were developed in the 18th century, many small town doctors had groups of people that had to stay quarantined for a few days to make sure they only developed a mild case of smallpox. Cures may have killed more people than the diseases themselves. The public developed a very skeptical attitude towards regular doctors. In the early 19th century, the do it yourself attitude of many Americans was popular. These people freely gave medical advice, emphasized the participant of the patient in his or her own treatment. However, other â€Å"medical treatments† were available also. Probably snake oil is best remembered. Andrew Taylor Still started the practice of osteopathy. Osteopathy incorporated bodily manipulations, similar to those seen in modern chiropractics. In osteopathy, these manipulations affected the magnetic flow of energy in the body. Osteopathy discouraged use of medicines, but did not forbid them. Another reaction against heroic medicine was homeopathy. A university-trained German doctor named Samuel Hahnemann started it. Heinemann said that doctors were giving their patients too much medicine. He believed that tiny amounts of drugs should be diluted in water before being given to a patient and that practitioners should take very thorough medical histories of each patient. Quackery was a way to fool people into believing they were being cured while making money from them. Quackery had even been licensed in London, but it was completely ignored by the America government for hundreds of years. Hydropathy was another special case. The healing power of water, hydropathy indicated the value of the rest cure, importance of having like-minded people around, the usefulness of light exercise and the fact that women who wore loose-fitting clothing generally felt better and had fewer physical complaints than the ones who did. Another special case is the entire issue of faith-only healing. While empirical evidence in favor of faith-only healing is lacking, anecdotal evidence suggests that some people who pray do experience spontaneous decrease of certain diseases. The late 19th century saw major changes in medicine in the United States. Medicine went from being medieval to incorporating many elements of modern science. The advances in chemistry, and biology had major impacts on medicine. As medical practitioners began to understand that the body was comprised of basic chemicals and not mysterious humors, effective treatments for diseases and injuries were developed. As medicine became more scientific, doctors needed both training and  licensing. In 1847, Dr. Nathan Davis founded the American Medical Association (AMA) in Philadelphia to help create professional standards for doctors and set minimal educational requirements. Medical colleges opened up across the country, increasing requirements from a few months without any college background to a number of years with a college degree. However, these colleges provided an extremely unpredictable level of medical education, with some of them a diploma and others provided a to notch medical education. As American cities exploded in size during the 19th century due to immigration from Europe, public health became more of an issue. With many hundreds of thousands of people living in cities: extremely crowded, unsanitary conditions; tuberculosis was often at epidemic levels in the cities. During the 19th century, people understood that TB was not caused by miasma, but was caused by bacteria. People with TB were sometimes sent out of the city to places in the country, where the cleaner air seemed to help their recovery. It was obvious that people needed clean water for drinking, and bathing. So cities started massive sewer projects to help bring clean water into the cities while removing wastewater from the city. Dead animal remains and garbage littered the street until the late 1800s when cities started sanitation crews to take the trash out of town and dumps to move the waste to. Many cities started dispensaries so the poor could receive treatment and medications for low cost. With the urban population explosion, the â€Å"poorhouses† (probably today’s HMO ‘Urgent Care’) became even larger and harder to manage. With new medical advances, people needed to be in big cities to receive certain types of treatment. Americans began to build hospitals across the country in the 19th century.  The new hospitals were generally cleaner than the old poorhouses.

Consumption of Caffeinated Beverages

[pic] UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA (UiTM SHAH ALAM) FACULTY OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT BEL422 REPORT WRITING GROUP REPORT COMSUMPTION OF CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES AMONG UiTM STUDENTS PREPARED BY: |NAME |MATRIX NO. GROUP |SIGN | | |2010528723 |BM2254A | | |NAWWAR KHALEEFUR RAHMAN | | | | | |2010729017 |BM2254A | | |NUR KHALIJAH ZAIDAN | | | | | |2010572149 |BM2254A | | |NURANIKA SHAMIMI SHAMSDIN | | | | | |2010549887 |BM2254A | | |YUSMAH YUSOF | | | | PREPARED FOR: MADAM ASHA LATHA B.S. BEL422 LECTURER (BM2254A) UiTM SHAH ALAM DATE OF SUBMISSION: 12TH DECEMBER 2012 (WEDNESDAY) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We have taken a lot of efforts in completing this report. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals who have been there for us along this journey as to complete this report in time. Alhamdulilah, first of all we would like to thank God for given us the strength and wisdom as finally we were able to complete our report effectively and efficiently. Thank God for letting us through all the difficulties and have experienced His guidance day by day. A special appreciation to our family.Words can not express how grateful we are to our mother, father, and our siblings for all of the sacrifices that they have made on our behalf. Their prayer for us were what sustained us thus far. We would like to express our special appreciation and thank to our BEL422 lecturer, Madam Asha Latha B. S. for the valuable advice and support she has given to us in the writing of this report apart from being a tremendous mentor for us through out this semester. This report had been done with all afford by group members eventhough there were constraints while doing this report. Fortunately, all the constraints are settled due to our group members co-operation and ideas.We are highly indebted to our friends for their support as well as they diligence extended in providing us necessary information in completing this report. Last but not least, our deepest thank t o our respondents for their understanding and support. THANK YOU ( [pic] SUMMARY This study was conducted to gauge on consumption of caffeinated beverages among UiTM students. It was requested by our BEL422 lecturer Mdm. Asha Latha B. S. to fulfill the course requirement. It was requested on 19th September 2012. The investigation was done by distributing questionnaires to 20 respondents comprising Business and Law students at UiTM Shah Alam. Data was collated and analyzed using a basic frequency analysis derived from Microsoft Excel Software.Secondary sources were also referred to, to obtain background information required for this report. The main finding _______________ TERMS OF REFFERENCE On 19th September 2012, Nawwar Binti Khaleefur Rahman, Nur Khalijah Bt. Zaidan, Nuranika Shamimi Binti Shamsdin and Yusmah Binti Yusof, from the Faculty of Business Management, UiTM Shah Alam, were instructed by Mdm. Asha Latha B. S. , the Report Writing lecturer (BEL) to write a report on consu mption of caffeinated beverages among UiTM students on questionnaires. The report which includes the background information, findings, conclusions and recommendations is to be submitted on 12th December 2012.TABLE OF CONTENT |No. |Title |Pages | | |Acknowledgement | | | |Summary | | | |Terms of Refference | | | |List of Illustrations | | |1. |Introduction | | | |Background of study | | | |Statement of The Problem | | | |Research Questions | | | |Objective of The Report | | | |Scope of Report | | |2. 0 |Literature Review | | |3. 0 |Methodology and Limitation | | |4. 0 |Findings | | |5. 0 |Conclusions | | |6. |Recommendations | | | |Bibliography | | | |Appendices | | LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS |No. |Title |Pages | |1 |Figure 4. 1 | | | |Respondents’ gender | | |2 |Figure 4. | | | |Age of tertiary students | | |3 |Figure 4. 3 | | | |Tertiary students who consume caffeinated beverages | | |4 |Figure 4. 4 | | | |Number of respondents who consume caffeinated beverages | | | 5 |Figure 4. | | | |Types of caffeinated beverages | | |6 |Figure 4. 6 | | | |Frequency of tertiary students drinking caffeinated beverages | | |7 |Figure 4. 7 | | | |Awareness of the contents of caffeinated beverages | | |8 |Figure 4. | | | |Addictiveness towards caffeinated beverages | | |9 |Figure 4. 9 | | | |Reasons why respondents consume caffeinated beverages | | |10 |Figure 4. 10 | | | |The consequences if the respondents cut down caffeinated beverages | | |11 |Figure 4. 1 | | | |Respondents’ response towards statement on caffeinated beverages | | 1. INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Background of the Study The report was written to gauge and identify the consumption of caffeinated beverages among tertiary students. It has been observed that some students drink caffeinated beverages and after it has become a habit among students. This report identifies the short term and long term effects of taking caffeinated beverages and determines why these students are reluctant to stop consum ption of these caffeinated beverages. This report was requested by Madam Asha Latha B. S on 19th September 2012. 1. 2 Statement of the ProblemThe meaning of â€Å"caffeinated beverage† is â€Å"a drink that contains caffeine. † Coffee is the most common one. Black, green and white tea also contain caffeine. Some sodas have caffeine added to them (Coke, Pepsi, Mountain Dew, for instance), as do many energy drinks. There are variety reasons why people like drinking caffeinated beverages. Many folks have coffee to help wake up in the morning. College students are known for knocking back coffee and caffeinated sodas to keep them up for studying the night before a big test. In some studies, caffeine has been shown to help concentration and memory. Too much consumption can increase person nervousness.If they drink cheap coffee that's made with robusta beans instead of 100% arabica beans, they may suffer stomach problem. If there is an addiction, measures must be suggested to reduce this and to introduce other form of healthier beverages. 1. 3 Research Questions This report seeks to answer the following questions: 1. 3. 1 What is the definition of caffeinated beverages? 1. 3. 2 What types of caffeinated beverages are popular among tertiary students? 1. 3. 3 Why are such beverages being consumed by tertiary students? 1. 3. 4 Are the tertiary students aware of the effects of heavy consumption on caffeinated beverages? 1. 3. 5 What are the drawbacks or setbacks experienced when attempting to stop caffeinated everages? 1. 3. 6 What are the suggestions for tertiary students to reduce the consumption of caffeinated beverages? 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW Caffeinated beverages have always been consumed by adults. However, nowadays, most tertiary students are consuming these beverages. Caffeine products are so widely distributed these days that abuse of the substance may be unnoticed. In fact, caffeine is the world’s most widely consumed stimulant, with 54 per cent of adults in America consuming on average three cups of coffee a day (Chen and Parrish, 2008). Diet Health Club on September 2011 identifies these beverages as: Any drinks which contain caffeine.This caffeine is a stimulant that is legal and is one of the most popular stimulants in the world especially among the developed countries. Some of the common caffeinated content beverages include teas, coffees, various kinds of energy drinks and soft drinks. Tea and coffee are found to naturally have caffeine. Whereas some of the popular drinks like cola have intentionally used this caffeine stimulant as one of the ingredients. The relationship between an individual’s amount of caffeine consumption during his/her study session and the individual’s study habits were investigated by Hope (2009). Most of the students revealed their personal consumption of caffeine as well as their study habits when preparing for a test or examinations.As determined by the researcher, it has been hypothesized that the more the caffeine a student consumes while studying, the more accurately his or her study habits would be labelled as ‘unhealthy’. To keep them ‘up’ for late night sessions, many college students rely on caffeine-packed sodas and coffee drinks which will increase vigilance, sadly this is unhealthy. A research by the (â€Å"National Council On Strength and Fitness), it shows that caffeinated beverages have become gradually more accepted within the diets of tertiary students. That shows the consumption of caffeinated beverages can cause long-lasting effects on brain function when utilized during the formative years.However drinking too much of caffeine can cause health problems or side effects to drinkers. Some side effects from caffeine use can be mere irritation. Others are downright dangerous. For smokers, caffeine can be especially harmful. Nicotine will raise blood pressure and increase the risk of cardiovascular complications . This is because caffeine is the drug used in the world and is part of everyone’s daily life-style, it has gone unnoticed as a potentially harmful substance to most people’s health. An article â€Å"Caffeine Awareness Association†(2010) also indicates that excessive coffee drinking can increase a person’s risk of heart attack. Thus, caffeine can also cause irregular heart rhythms.And some researchers believe it can increase a woman’s chances of getting cancer. Caffeine has also been linked with central nervous system disorders, Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, and incontinence. The medical community has recently taken caffeine withdrawal quite seriously. It is estimated that one in eight people will experience symptoms that will interfere with ability to work or function for at least a couple of days. Jordan (2004), suggested including caffeine withdrawal as a verifiable condition in the Diagnostic and Statistics Manual of Mental Disorders (D SM). However, caffeine withdrawal is seldom dangerous, though it can make one uncomfortable for a few days. The most frequent symptom ssociated when we attempt to stop caffeinated beverages is moderate to severe headaches. This can occur between 12 and 24 hours after the last intake of caffeine. It usually lasts for one to two days, though some may have a headache for longer. Furthermore, according to Lee (2006), drinking too much of caffeine will impact one negatively. It causes palpitations and withdrawal systems that include headache and drowsiness. Tertiary education often requires students to study for extended hours, especially during periods of increased workload prior to tests and examinations. Removing caffeine from one’s daily routine can be done by approaching the task of lowering the intake of caffeine.Switching to a coffee with less caffeine and checking labels on medications are the approaches to gradually reduce the amount of caffeine consumption for each day, (â€Å"Fit Day†, n. d). According to Haupt (2012), suggests go for an espresso shot because it contains only about half the amount of caffeine as a cup of regular coffee. 3. 0 METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS 20 respondents were chosen randomly. The respondents were required to answer a questionnaire. These questionnaires were distributed on ______ and collected on ____. Data was collected and analyzed using a basic frequency analysis that was derived from Microsoft Excel software. Various secondary sources and materials were also looked into as differences and guides.Although this research was carefully prepared, there were still limitations and shortcomings. This report was done on a small scale involving 20 respondents. Since the population was small, the findings presented may not be applicable as general representations. To do so a large sample would be required. The period given to conduct and complete this report was 11 weeks only. Background information for the report was limited to articles from various websites. 4. 0 FINDINGS 4. 1 RESPONDENTS’ GENDER [pic] Figure 4. 1 The pie chart in Figure 4. 1 shows the gender who consumed caffeinated beverages. The gender is divided into two categories which are females and males.Based on the pie chart, it shows that the percentage of females who consume caffeinated beverages among tertiary students is higher than males where by females involve 70% and male 30% only. 4. 2 AGE OF TERTIARY STUDENTS [pic] Figure 4. 2 The table in Figure 4. 2 shows the age of the respondents who consume caffeinated beverages. It shows that the age of 19 – 21 years old has the highest no of respondents at 12 respondents while the age of 30 – 32 years old has the lowest number of respondents at 1 respondent only. 4. 3 TERTIARY STUDENTS WHO CONSUME CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES [pic] Figure 4. 3 The diagram above shows the number of students from universities that consume caffeinated beverages.It shows that University Tec hnology Mara has the highest no of respondents who consume caffeinated beverages among all tertiary students at 9 respondents. The lowest numbers of respondents who consume caffeinated beverages are tertiary students for University Malaya at only 3 respondents. 4. 4 NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS WHO CONSUME CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES [pic] Figure 4. 4 The pie chart above shows the number of respondents who consume caffeinated beverages. It shows that 20 respondents answered â€Å"yes† in this questionnaire. 4. 5 TYPES OF CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES [pic] [pic] Figure 4. 5 Figure 4. 5 shows the types of caffeinated beverages that are taken by tertiary students.According to the chart, tea is the highest for the types of caffeinated beverages at 52% followed by coffee at 25% and sodas at 25%. Sodas are divided into four types which are Coke at 23%, Pepsi at 59%, Mountain Dew at 10% and others at 9%. 4. 6 FREQUENCY OF TERTIARY STUDENTS DRINKING CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES IN A WEEK [pic] Figure 4. 6 Figu re 4. 6 shows the frequency tertiary students drink caffeinated beverages. Based on the chart above, it shows that 40% of tertiary students drink caffeinated beverages 2 – 4 times in a week. 25% of tertiary students drink it once a week, 20% drink it every day and only 10% of the tertiary students drink it 5- 6 times in a week. 4. 7 AWARENESS OF THE CONTENTS OF CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES [pic] [pic] Figure 4. 7 Figure 4. shows the awareness of the contents of such beverages by tertiary students. According to the chart, it is clear that most students are aware of the contents of caffeinated beverages since 64% answered so. Another 36% of tertiary students are not aware of the contents of such beverages. Therefore, for those who are aware of the contents in caffeinated beverages, the results show that 41% realise the sugar, 23% know of their preservatives, 9% the colouring and 27% the caffeine contents. 4. 8 ADDICTIVENESS TOWARDS CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES [pic] [pic] Figure 4. 8 Figure 4. 8 shows the addictiveness towards caffeinated beverages by tertiary students.From the chart above, it is clear that 55% of the tertiary students are not addicted to caffeinated beverages. Only 45% of tertiary students are addicted to caffeinated beverages. When they are addicted to caffeinated beverages, most of them control addiction by carrying with plain water (60%), followed by 30% who revert to de-caffeinated beverages and 10% who resort to junk food / fast food. 4. 9 REASONS WHY RESPONDENTS CONSUME CAFFEINATED BEVERAGES [pic] Figure 4. 9 Figure 4. 9 illustrates the reasons why respondents consume caffeinated beverages. Firstly, 8 out of 20 respondents say they find caffeinated beverages tasty. Next, 30% of the respondents consume such beverages because find them inexpensive. respondents ranked they find caffeinated beverages convenient. Moreover, no respondents ranked finding such beverages inexpensive or tasty. Meanwhile, 40% of the respondents rank they follow their frien ds as the reason why they consume caffeinated beverages. 4. 10 THE CONSEQUENCES IF THE RESPONDENTS CUT DOWN CAFFEINATED BEVEREAGES [pic] Figure 4. 10 Figure 4. 10 shows the percentages of the consequences if the respondents cut down on caffeinated beverages. 60% of the respondents will feel sleepy if they cut down their consumption on such beverages. Meanwhile, only 10% of them feel moody after they reduced their intake. None of them feel sick easily if they cut down their consumption. Statements |Strongly Agree |Agree |Neutral |Disagree |Strongly | | | | | | |Disagree | |Caffein|6 |30% |9 |45% |3 | |ated | | | | | | |beverag| | | | | | |es have| | | | | | |adverse| | | | | | |effects| | | | | | |on the | | | | | | |body. | | | | | |   |   | Universiti Teknologi Mara | | | |   | |   |   | Sunway College University | | |   | |   |   | Taylors College University | | | |   | |   |   | University Malaya | | | |   | |   |   | Others ( Please state : __ _____________ ) | |   | |   | | | | | |   |   | Yes |   | |   |   | Coffee |   | |   | |   |   | Coke |   | |   |   | Once a week | | | | | |   |   | 5 – 6 times a week | | | |   | |   |   | Everyday | |   |   | Yes|   | |   | |   |(Tick v for suitable options) | |   | |   | |   | |   |   | Yes|   | |   | |   |(Tick v for suitable options) | |   | |   | |   |   | Seek medical help | |   | |   | |   |   | Carry with me plain water |   | |   | |   |   |Revert to de-caffeinated beverages | |   | |   |   | Replace these drinks by chewing gum or sweets | |   | |   |   | Resort to junk food / fast food |   | |   | |   |   | |   |( Rank 1 for major reason and 6 for least major reason) | |   | | | | | |   |   | | | | |   |   | I find them convenience |   | I consume them to help | |   | | |   |   | become moody | |   | become sick easily | |   |   | become less alert / active |   | become sleepy / lazy | |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | | | | | | | | | |13) |Consumption of caffeinated beverages leads to emotional disturbances.    |   | |   |   | | | | | | | | | |14) |I find it difficult to cut down on my consumption of such beverages. |   |   |   |   |   | | | | | | | | | |15) |I require help to overcome my addiction towards caffeinated beverages. |   |   | |   |   | | | | | | | | | |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | | THE END THANK YOU

Easy Experiment

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